293. One of the distinguishing features of censuses of population and housing is the extent to which a comprehensive specification of geographic characteristics can be undertaken, as well as the cross-tabulation of other characteristics, such as demographic, economic or ethnocultural, by geography.

294. Since the census covers the complete universe of interest, characteristics of the population can be given at the smallest geographical levels, without being subject to the errors that can arise when using statistical estimates based on sample surveys. Once the population base has been determined it is then possible to examine how this population is located geographically.

295. The UNECE Survey included a number of questions on the use of spatial data in the NSO in general and specifically for the census, and others on how the geographic characteristics of each country’s population were covered in the respective census. This chapter presents an analysis of these results.

296. Information will be presented on main results of the UNECE survey about three geographically-related core topics in the CES Recommendations: locality (derived) (para. 412), urban and rural areas (derived) (para. 422), and location of place of work (para. 440). Concerning the core topic location of living quarters, no information was collected in the UNECE survey.

297. The chapter also presents some information on various non-core topics that require an underlying geographic base, including four topics related to commuting, and the population grid, that was introduced for the first time in the CES Recommendations for the 2020 census round.

298. In almost all countries the national statistical institutes and the national agency for cartography and cadastre are different organizations that cooperate. This cooperation is very close in 21 cases and partially in 17 cases. Only in very few cases the two organizations are fully integrated or on the contrary do not cooperate at all. In the case of countries with register-based or combined censuses the most frequent response was close cooperation, while in the context of countries with a traditional census the most frequent response was partial cooperation. Countries are generally sensitive to the issue of cooperation in integrating census data with geospatial information.

299. In the cases where NSOs cooperate with geospatial organizations, there is more frequently a formal cooperation agreement. Less frequently, the formal cooperation is enshrined in law or there exists no formal framework at all. In most countries, a formal type of cooperation between the NSO and the national mapping and cadastral agency (NACM) is chosen.

300. Although the NSO and NACM cooperate in many countries, there is often no agreement for GIS development for census purposes (it exists only in 6 countries). Strengthening cooperation between the involved organizations and developing a common GIS would yield several benefits, such as working on shared geographies, standardizing spatial concepts and codes, facilitating data integration and improving the dissemination of census data to more granular spatial levels.

301. Concerning the roles of spatial data in NSOs in general, the most frequent use (39 total responses) is connected to data dissemination and visualization. Spatial data are also frequently used for data analysis (27 responses) and continue to play an important role in the preparation and data collection stages.

302. With specific reference to the use of spatial data in the census, the benefits reported by NSOs are most frequently related to the visualization of the results of statistical projects (32). Frequently mentioned advantages also include offering more advanced spatial analysis services for external users (26) and providing spatial statistics as data or web map services (25). Finally, it is noteworthy that 26 countries have reported benefits in terms of providing data for the European grid, in accordance with the context of promoting census data at grid territorial detail.

303. In the CES recommendations, the locality was defined (paras. 412-413) as “a distinct population cluster or settlement, that is, the area defined by population with place of usual residence located in neighbouring or contiguous buildings. Such buildings referred to in this definition may:

(a) form a continuous builtup area with a clearly recognizable street formation; or

(b) though not part of such a builtup area, comprise a group of buildings to which a locally recognized place name is uniquely attached; or

(c) though not coming within either of the above two requirements, constitute a group of buildings, none of which is separated from its nearest neighbour by more than 200 metres.

304. Only two countries reported that they were not able to produce data on locality of usual residence as defined above (Table 53), not providing a reason for that. It is a clear improvement compared to the 2010 census round, when nine countries did not produced data on locality.

305. Of the 42 countries that produced data about locality, 28 used the CES definition, including 11 with criterion a) above (mainly those using a combined census), 10 with criterion b) (mainly with field enumeration) and 7 with criterion c) (all with register-based census). The remaining 14 countries used another definition different from those listed in the CES Recommendations. All those countries reported that the definition used allowed better statistical comparability with previous censuses. Other reasons reported include: using a definition imposed by the legislation (11 countries), reflecting requirements and/or needs of some of the main users (8) and consistency with other statistical surveys (7).

	Total (out of 44 countries)	Type of census
		Field enumeration (15 countries)	Combined (16 countries)	Register-based (13 countries)
Information collected based on CES definition – of which:	28	9	10	9
a) Locality defined as a continuous built-up area with a clearly recognizable street formation	11	3	8	0
b) Locality defined as a group of buildings to which a locally recognized place name is uniquely attached	10	6	2	2
c) Locality defined as a group of buildings, none of which is separated from its nearest neighbour by more than 200 metres	7	0	0	7
Information collected using another definition different from those listed in the CES Recommendations	14	6	4	4
Information not collected	2	0	2	0

306. The CES Recommendations define (at paragraph 422) urban areas as localities with a population of 2,000 or more, and rural areas as localities with a population of less than 2,000 and sparsely populated areas. The CESR also noted that for national purposes, as well as for international comparability, the most appropriate unit for distinguishing urban and rural areas is the locality, however countries could decide whether to use the locality or the smallest civil division as the unit of classification, or to define urban areas in other ways, for example in terms of administrative boundaries; built-up areas; or the area for which services such as shops, educational facilities, recreational facilities, employment, etc., are provided.

307. Of the 42 responding countries, 34 (81%) reported producing data on urban and rural areas, 19 using the locality as the basis of the classification, 6 using the smallest administrative unit and 9 using another classification unit (Table 54). There are no significant differences about the classification used by census method.

	Total (out of 42 countries)	Type of census
		Field enumeration (15 countries)	Combined (14 countries)	Register-based (13 countries)
Information collected – of which:	34	14	11	9
Classified by locality	19	7	7	5
Classified by smallest civil division	6	3	2	1
Using another classification unit	9	4	2	3
Information not collected	8	1	3	4

308. The location of place of work is defined in the CES Recommendations as the precise location in which a currently employed person performs his/her job. The location should preferably be coded to the precise address and/or geographic coordinates or, if this is not possible, to the smallest possible civil division.

309. Table 55 presents information on the number of countries that produced data on this topic and the definitions used (multiple definitions could be selected (for instance, for different categories of workers).

	Total (out of 40 countries)	Type of census
		Field enumeration (15 countries)	Combined (14 countries)	Register-based (13 countries)
Information collected – of which:	40	14	15	11
Defined as the actual place in which the employed person performed his/her job during the week of the census reference time	23	9	11	3
Defined as the address of the local unit for which the employed person was working during the week of the census reference time	17	4	4	9
Defined as the depot or headquarters to which the employed person usually reports (i.e. for drivers, delivery workers and other outdoor workers)	13	4	4	5
Using another definition	3	2	1	0
Information not collected	4	1	0	3

* Countries could select multiple reasons.

310. Most countries (40 out of 44) collected data on location of place of work. A definition based on the actual place in which the employed person performed his/her job during census week was adopted by over half the countries (23), including only 3 with register-based census.

311. A definition based on the address of the local unit for which the employed person was working during census week was adopted by 17 countries (they were 26 in the 2010 round), and a definition based on the headquarters to which the employed persons usually report (for mobile workers) was adopted by 13 countries (they were 18 in the 2010 round). This definition only refers to that small proportion of the labour force whose workplace is not fixed and was therefore only adopted in combination with one or more of the other definitions. Indeed many countries (12) reported that they adopted more than one definition. Only three countries applied other definitions.

312. In addition to the location of place of work, the CES Recommendations included various non-core topics related to commuting from home to workplace, school, college or university. Accurate commuter flows are important for a whole raft of reasons including transport planning, housing development and economic development.

313. Table 56 presents general information on those topics, namely on how many countries included them in the census, what was the main data source used and whether the classifications used were fully compliant with the CES Recommendations (when relevant).

314. The location of school, college or university was included in the census by 15 countries, over a third of those that responded this question. The majority of the countries used for enumeration, as part of a field enumeration or combined census. Four countries were able to produce this information using data from registers or administrative records, while Switzerland was the only country using sample data.

315. The mode of transport to work or to place of education was the topic included in the census by most countries (17). No countries could produce this information using data from registers or administrative records, but a significant number of countries (5) used sample data. This was also the only topic of the four for which a classification was suggested by the CES recommendations. Two thirds of the countries used a classification fully compliant. Among the countries that used a different classification, some did so in order to consider the modes that are most relevant in the country.

316. Information on the distance travelled to work (or to place of education) and time taken was included in the census by only 10 and 12 countries respectively, with a full enumeration or sample data used as the main source in most cases.

	Total (out of 41 countries)	Type of census
		Field enumeration (13 countries)	Combined (15 countries)	Register-based (13 countries)
Location of school, college or university
Topic included in the census	15	4	8	3
Main data source: full enumeration	9	4	5	0
Main data source: sample data	1	0	1	0
Main data source: registers/admin rec	4	0	1	3
Mode of transport to work or to place of education
Topic included in the census	17	7	9	1
Main data source: full enumeration	11	5	6	0
Main data source: sample data	5	1	3	1
Main data source: registers/admin.rec.	0	0	0	0
Classification fully compliant with CES	10	2	8	0
Classification NOT compliant with CES	5	3	1	1
Distance travelled to work or to place of education
Topic included in the census	10	3	4	3
Main data source: full enumeration	4	2	2	0
Main data source: sample data	3	1	2	0
Main data source: registers/admin.rec.	2	0	0	2
Time taken for the travel to work or to place of education
Topic included in the census	12	4	5	3
Main data source: full enumeration	5	2	3	0
Main data source: sample data	4	1	2	1
Main data source: registers/admin.rec.	1	0	0	1

317. Population grid is a derived non-core topic that was introduced for the first time in the CES Recommendations for the 2020 census round. For census purposes, a population grid is defined as a geo-referencing framework for population in the form of a grid net with fixed and unambiguously defined locations of equal-area grid cells (para 428). Though the topic was included in the CESR on a non-core basis, countries were strongly urged to consider adopting the use of grid square data.

318. The UNECE survey did not collect information on whether population data was collected or produced at grid level, but a question was included on what is the smallest geographical level at which any census data set is disseminated. The results, with reference to the population count and characteristics, are presented in Table 57.

319. Of the 36 responding countries, 30 (83%) disseminated census data for the population count for grids. The smallest level was one square kilometre in 18 countries and below that in 12 countries. The census block (area bounded on all sides by streets, roads, streams, railroad tracks, etc.) was reported by 9 countries as the smallest geographical level. Ireland, Poland and the Republic of Moldova disseminated data on population count for both census blocks and 1 km grid.

320. The data are similar for the dissemination of population characteristics, but only 8 countries used grids with a resolution below 1 km.

321. All reporting countries with a register-based census disseminated data for both population count and characteristics using grids, and more than half of them at a resolution below 1 km. Among countries with a field enumeration or combined census, 6 (17%) did not disseminate population data using grids, and only very few used grids with a resolution below 1 km.

Geographical level	Total (out of 36 countries)	Type of census
		Field enumeration (10 countries)	Combined (14 countries)	Register-based (12 countries)
Population count
Census block	9	5	4	0
1 km (one square kilometre) grid	18	4	10	4
Grid with resolution below 1 km	12	2	3	7
Population characteristics
Census block	6	3	3	0
1 km (one square kilometre) grid	19	4	10	5
Grid with resolution below 1 km	8	1	1	6